TFY Chapter 12 - Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of starting with premises and investigating what conclusions necessarily follow from these premises. Deduction is the subject of formal logic. Logic has its own vocabulary like: argument, claim and reasoning. Hidden premises or conclusions, hypothesis, inductive reasoning. Syllogisms determine what is being said to identify hidden premises, to find what makes sense. Deductive and inductive reasoning are mentally interwoven in problem solving.

TFY Chapter 11 - Fallacies - Inductive Reasoning and Inductive Fallacies

Hasty generalization is the fallacy of basing a conclusion on insufficient evidence. It is an argument that oversimplifies a situation, only 2 choices when actually other alternatives exist. The questionable stat is one that is either unknowable or unsound. Inconsistency in evidence is the fallacy of offering evidence that contradicts the conclusion. The loaded question is the that seeks to obtain a predetermined answer. The false analogy is a comparison of 2 things that have some similarities but also differences ignored for the sake of argument. False cause is the fallacy of claiming connection between events w/out evidence to support the claim. The slippery slope is fallacy of claiming proof that would allow one event to happen and lead to an unstoppable chain reaction. It ignores variables or unknowns in the situation.

TFY Chapter 10 - Fallacies: What's a Faulty Argument?

There are many different types of fallacies in this chapter that describe a different reasoning error. Fallacies may be accidental or unintentional, many are amusing, all are manipulative. Each of them sidesteps a fair and reasonable argument. After this chapter, I learned that fallacies are evident and easier to understand.

TFY Chapter 9 - Argument: What Is Good A Good Argument?

Critical reading of arguments requires involvlement, interaction with questions and evaluation. Questions asked are: what viewpoint is source of argument? What is the issue of controversy? Is it an argument or report? The analysis of arguments applies to both inductive and deductive arguments. The conclusion of an argument is the last step is the last step in the reasoning process. Reasons support conclusions. An issue is a topic of controversy which positions may be taken. Ask questions that can serve as a guideline for analyzing an argument's strengths and weaknesses.
1) Are reasons adequate to support the conclusion?
2) Any hidden assumptions?
3) any words slanted to incite prejudice?
4) any fallacies of reasoning?
5) any important info missing?
6) any false or contradictory info?

TFY Chapter 8 - Viewpoints

CT means learning how to recognize viewpoints and how they shape the contents of a message. Viewpoints, like assumptions, opinions and evaluations can be either conscious or unconscious. We communicate better when we are aware of our own viewpoint and understand and respect others viewpoints. Unconscious viewpoints include egocentric, ethnocentric and religiocentric. Left, right and centrist views exist within both the republican and democratic parties. The internet is a way of expression not represented in US media. Magazines express viewpoints through words, pictures and framing.

TFY Chapter 7 - Evaluations

This chapter is about one variety of opinion called evaluations. They can be badly honest, or hidden and manipulative. The basis can be explicit or vague criteria, clear or vague feelings. We can get into trouble if we mistake them for facts or are influenced by them. Evaluations shape our ideals, decisions and judgements.

TFY Chapter 6 - Opinions

The word opinion is commonly misunderstood. Opinions can be well substantiated or not. They can be based either on reasons or solely on whim, feelings, emotions or predjudice.

CT requires that we recognize difference between responsible and irresponsible opinion.

People enjoy expressing and reading opinions. Expert opinion is an understanding of evidence and risks in a situation; is important and highly valued.

Public opinion polls are used to determine public sentiment but also to manipulate public sentiment.

Opinions should not be confused with facts.

Arguments consist of supported opinions. The intent of an argument is to persuade.

TFY Chapter 5 - Assumptions

Assumption: something we take for granted, something we accept prematurely as being true, something we don't check out carefully.

Can be conscious or unconscious, warranted or unwarranted.

Hidden assumptions are unconscious assumptions that greatly influence reasoning.

Arguments are the use of reasoning to defend an idea or pursuade someone else to believe it.

TFY Chapter 4 Inferences: What follows?

Infer means to derive by reasoning. To conclude, to guess.

Responsible report or descriptive writing lets facts speak for themselves.

When writing, offer detailed support for conclusions. When we perceive and think clearly, we interest ourselves and others.

Inferences can be used to tie facts together. In solving problems can be used in choosing alternatives.

Inferences tend to build on inferences in chains of association.

Facts and inferences are linked together through generalizations.

TFY Chapter 3 - Facts

A fact is something known with certainty through experience, observation or measurement. Can be objectively demonstrated and verified.

Hard to determine if facts correspond to reality

Difference between fact and fiction does matter

Facts not absolutes but statements of probability

Social pressures can lead us to distort our perceptions

Our senses limited and affected by many factors

Facts must be expressed in careful statements

Standards used to determine facts are verifiability, reliability, and plausability

TFY Chapter 2 - Word precision

Accurate use of words improves our thinking, gives form to our thoughts and enable us to communicate with others.

Writing hepls us learn more about words and how to use them.

Clear thinking depends on the words we use. Confusion leads to disequillibrium.

We need to understand what dictionaries can/cannot offer us. Definitions show us a word's meaning.

Testing our understanding a word is ability to define it. Taking time to define words is essential to communication.

Studying a word's origin can help us understand it more.

Connotations of a word can be positive, negative or neutral.

1st stage of critical reading is ability to reproduce content without alteration.

TFY Chapter 1 - Observation skills

First observe our own thinking habits. Observe our own thinking process so we can recognize strengths and weaknesses.

Obeservation can help us see details and help us discover new knowledge.

Observation is a process of sensing, perceiving, and thinking. Sensing is collecting data through our sense organs. Perceiving is holding sense data in consciousness until we can interpret it. Thinking organizes our perceptions.

Observation requires us to stay awake, take our time, give attention and listen.

Cultivating observation skills are self-understanding, creativity and wonder.

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